Unsupervised cluster analysis of walking activity data for healthy individuals and individuals with lower limb amputation

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Jamieson, Alexander and Murray, Laura and Stankovic, Vladimir and Stankovic, Lina and Buis, Arjan (2023) Unsupervised cluster analysis of walking activity data for healthy individuals and individuals with lower limb amputation. Sensors, 23 (19). 8164. ISSN 1424-8220 (https://doi.org/10.3390/s23198164)

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Abstract

This is the first investigation to perform an unsupervised cluster analysis of activities performed by individuals with lower limb amputation (ILLAs) and individuals without gait impairment, in free-living conditions. Eight individuals with no gait impairments and four ILLAs wore a thigh-based accelerometer and walked on an improvised route across a variety of terrains in the vicinity of their homes. Their physical activity data were clustered to extract ‘unique’ groupings in a low-dimension feature space in an unsupervised learning approach, and an algorithm was created to automatically distinguish such activities. After testing three dimensionality reduction methods—namely, principal component analysis (PCA), t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (tSNE), and uniform manifold approximation and projection (UMAP)—we selected tSNE due to its performance and stable outputs. Cluster formation of activities via DBSCAN only occurred after the data were reduced to two dimensions via tSNE and contained only samples for a single individual. Additionally, through analysis of the t-SNE plots, appreciable clusters in walking-based activities were only apparent with ground walking and stair ambulation. Through a combination of density-based clustering and analysis of cluster distance and density, a novel algorithm inspired by the t-SNE plots, resulting in three proposed and validated hypotheses, was able to identify cluster formations that arose from ground walking and stair ambulation. Low dimensional clustering of activities has thus been found feasible when analyzing individual sets of data and can currently recognize stair and ground walking ambulation.

ORCID iDs

Jamieson, Alexander, Murray, Laura ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3338-9564, Stankovic, Vladimir ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1075-2420, Stankovic, Lina ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8112-1976 and Buis, Arjan ORCID logoORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3947-293X;
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